Course reflection

Learning Theories and Instruction Reflection                                     Kaatri Percival

Before this class on learning theories and Instruction, I was abysmally ignorant about social learning and constructivist learning theories.  I also was out of touch with the universal significance and need of the social touch when designing and implementing instruction.

Even with nonsocial learning I realize that it is important to make learning materials significant and applicable to real world situations and that learners experience stronger motivation when they can view their learning in terms of fixing social/world problems as well as when these problems arouse emotion in them. Choosing the right learning theory to apply depends on where the needed knowledge falls on the learning continuum. (Ertmer and Newby, 1993)

A repeated recommendation in the course materials was the need to let students elaborate on the material they are working with to foster the best learning Ormrod, 2011). Giving student’s autonomy and self-determination are also key factors in increasing learning. This can be done through providing many materials which students select from to investigate and present back to the peers in an individualized fashion.  One of the ways to increase the “social touch” is to allow peers to participate in discussion about the information presented, having the instructor provide guidance and feedback, working to move the student to the next level of comprehension.  This is essential. (Ormrod, Schunk, and Gredler, 2009), (Keller, 2003)

This fits into the ARCS model of motivation.  Students can find their motivation increased by the instructor adding precise information on expectations and grading procedures to increase student confidence. Personal messaging to students is shone to increase student motivation with kind words, encouragement and resource helps that assist students to complete the course. (Keller, 2003)

An interesting finding in our reading about learning styles showed that students were not as tied to learning styles as once believed.  Students when failing to master material employing one learning style moved freely between others in an attempt to learn the required material. They did not seem tied to a particular style. (Gilbert and Swainer, 2008)

In one of John Keller’s books , Motivational Design for Learning and Performance: The ARCS Model Approach along with a useful table which meshes the instructional design model the ARCS motivational process, this book also includes helpful templates, worksheets, and tactics to increase the effectiveness of instruction.  Resources such as these will be helpful to me as I design instruction.                 

  

                 

References

Ertmer, P.A. & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:

Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), by P. A. Ertmer & T. J. Newby. Copyright 1993 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Journals.

Gilbert, J., & Swanier, C. (2008). Learning styles: How do they fluctuate?

Institute for Learning Styles Journal [Vol. l]. Retrieved from http://www.auburn.edu/~witteje/ilsrj/Journal%20Volumes/Fall%202008%20Volume%201%20PDFs/Learning%20Styles%20How%20do%20They%20Fluctuate.pdf

Keller, J. M. (1999). Using the ARCS motivational process in

computer-based instruction and distance education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning (78)

Keller, J.M. (2010). Motivational Design for Learning and Performance: The ARCS

Model approach. Springer: New York.

Ormrod, Jean R, (2011). “Learning Styles and Strategies”, Walden

 University.

Ormrod, J., Schunk, D., & Gredler, M. (2009). Learning theories and

 instruction (Laureate custom edition). New York: Pearson.

Personal Learning Preference Revisited

Week 7

After reading the materials for this course, I believe that how I view myself as a learner has not changed.  If I were developing a course for myself I would consult the assumptions and apply the principles associated with Andragogy as described by Conlan, Grabowski and Smith in Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology.

The five assumptions about adult learners attributed to Malcolm Knowles are:

• ·      Independent self-concept
• ·      Accumulation of life experiences
• ·      Learning needs related to changing social role
• ·      Is problem-centered and interested in immediate application
• ·      Internally motivated

These assumptions are reflected in the principles to apply in designing adult education with the addition that adults should be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.  These principles allow adult learners to engage in learning as described by cognitive constructivist learning theory models.

In Learning Theories and Instruction, the instructional designer is given these directives for the “active application of ideas to problems“ where “the learner elaborates and interprets the given information.”

The designer is instructed to :

• ·      instruct the student on how to construct meaning, effectively monitor, evaluate, and update their constructions;
• ·      align and design experiences so that authentic, relevant contexts can be experienced.

An apprenticeship model would add, “modeling and coaching by experts, each experience building on the previous”

Ertmer and Newby in Behaviorism, Cognitivism: Comparing Critical Features From an Instructional Design Perspective describe the facilitation of learning or transfer in constructivist learning, “Transfer is facilitated by involvement in authentic tasks anchored in meaningful contexts.  The goal of instruction is to accurately portray tasks, not to define the structure of learning required.”

My learning styles being visual and independent, but not those of an isolationist, fits well into the wellspring of technological resources that facilitate adult constructivist learning. The Netports System describes the use of technology that supports this type of learning, my type of learning.  The following information came from an article in the British Journal of Technology, July 2007, by Shu-Ling Wangand Sunny S. J Lin:

The NetPorts system thus includes: (1) a bulletin board function, allowing students to post messages, questions, arguments, responses and requests for help from teachers or classmates and (2) a chat room, allowing for structured group discussions among cooperative learning teams. With regards to the latter, teachers are able to create additional chat rooms for the exclusive use of a spe-cific group of students.

In addition, the NetPorts system allows teachers to either present learning materials in HTML format or design their own scaffolding activities to aid students in making use of the appropriate cognitive strategies. Moreover, the system enables teachers to assign students or groups to create web-based portfolios. During our examination of system functionality, students were found to successfully plan, monitor, sort and store information in their web-based portfolios. Furthermore, students regularly reviewed their online portfolios, exhibiting the metacognition necessary for the self-assessment of their learning processes.

Finally, we added a peer-assessment module in order to overcome one of the major stumbling blocks to a successful execution of portfolio-centred learning: the teachers’ inability to spend sufficient time evaluating and providing quality feedback. Peer feed-back is a far easier and far less time-consuming practice than a rigorous teacher-centred feedback. In a previous study (Lin, Yang, Liu & Yuan, 2001), we found that high school- level computer programming students were capable of offering quality feedback sup- ported by high-level cognitive strategies.

Walden University runs on a similar scale through Sylvan Live, a technological medium for the education of adults.

Mind Map/ Social Networking Blog

To begin my discussion on social networking I would like to submit these conclusions from the following  article: Ties With Potential: Social Network Structure and Innovative Climate in Dutch Schools by Nienke M. Moolenaar, Alan J. Daly & Peter J. C. Sleegers — 2011

Their stated objective and conclusions:

Background/Context: Similar to the United States, government efforts to improve education in the Netherlands are focused on innovation and the development of collaborative structures to support the generation of new knowledge. However, empirical evidence of the relationship between social linkages and innovation in education is scarce.

Objective: The aim of the study was to examine the impact of social network structure on schools’ innovative climate, as mediated by teachers’ involvement in decision-making.

Conclusions/Recommendations: Findings indicated that the more densely connected teachers were in regard to work-related and personal advice, the more they perceived their schools’ climate to be supportive of innovation. Highly dense work-related network structures also typified teams that perceived strong teacher involvement in decision-making. Moreover, results suggested that the positive relationship between density of work-related advice networks and innovation-supportive school climate could be partially explained by increased shared decision-making. Implications of the study for teachers, organizations, leadership, and policy are discussed.

This additional information to their conclusion I thought very striking and significant:

The relationships around work-related and personal advice have at their core a willingness to be vulnerable and engage in a level of risk-taking. It is this willingness to be vulnerable and engage in risk-taking with multiple others in the organization that appears important for the development of innovations and the creation of new knowledge at the school level. Risk-taking and vulnerability are central to trusting relations, which have been found to support productivity, leadership, and a more responsive climate in schools (Bryk & Schneider, 2002; Daly, 2009; Frank et al., 2004; Tschannen-Moran, 2004). Our findings build on this work and suggest that relationships based in trust may also be associated with the generation of new knowledge and practices. Therefore, efforts to create trusting environments within a school may also improve the school’s innovative climate.

My developing thoughts on Social networking involve three points:

• ·      New knowledge is only as good as the old knowledge it was built upon.
• ·      Trust is the base for all relationships.
• ·      Our culture demands the use of technological social networking tools.

      The first, demonstrates the need for good foundational skills obtained through traditional education, which needs to include lessons on good judgment, and the second, the application of good judgment to building our ideas on solid research or proven wisdom.  We could certainly build very expensive castles on sand through social networking.  The British Journal of Educational Technology,  the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, and the Teachers College Record are resources I have discovered since becoming a Walden University student which I feel I can trust to help me develop instructional design projects.

      The second, involves good management, which can create and guide environments where creativity is fostered.  In our class on organizations, this became apparent that organizations had to create a culture of creativity to maintain growth, competitiveness and to meet employees’ needs.  “Fostering Education” by Dr. Michelle Bligh, a video lecture through Walden University, highlights these needs within organizations and some of the challenges.

      While reading our discussion posts from this week on adult learning it could not be more evident the challenge we have with time and distance (Week 5 discussion between Shelia and Jeff, 2011). Our responsibilities are no longer bound by the geography of our local communities which thrusts us into the use of technology to save time, to access and share information, and to increase productivity in groups spread throughout the globe.  Thomas Friedman painted a clear picture of global productivity in “It’s a Flat World after All” published in the New York Times, April 3,2005, and this is dated. 

      Social networking aided by technology is our culture.  Functioning effectively within this domain requires the same etiquette and grace relationships have always required from the first hello.  It was the foundational requirement of trust,  that struck me in the conclusion from the study, Ties With Potential: Social Network Structure and Innovative Climate in Dutch Schools.  The need for social grace is also stated by my fellow students in the week 5 postings between Shelia, Jeff and Sonia that included this statement, “The key is to disagree without being disagreeable”.   Yes, much has changed technologically in our society, but the Golden Rule will always be applicable whether you are trying to be a good manager, a good teacher, or a good colleague: 
“So whatever you wish that others would do to you, do also to them, (ESV (©2001). If we abide by this axiom and use good judgment, technology based social networking can be a fabulous tool for advancing connections within our field of work, within our families and between friends!

Respons to -isms in Learning Theory

I believe most of the _isms have a place.   From our text, Learning Theories and Instruction, I have developed the impression that each _ ism has validity and usefulness in certain circumstances, but not in all.  In most cases each has a place, behaviorism is effective as a means to learn facts, problem solving theories describe how facts and experiences become solutions, constructivism is appropriate particularly when we are working on projects of interest or in our careers where creativity and innovation is called for.  Each _ism is required for functional learning, but we may acquire needed building blocks for a project 10 years before they become the base to a constructivistic project.

My other observation is, although there are many ways to discuss memory, cognitive informational processes, and learning processes, they all revolve around/ depend upon particular brain processes: encoding, organization, elaboration, meaningfulness, links with schema, analysis, placing learning in broad associated networks which can be activated and require motivation with conditional procedures regulating the appropriate brain process. The –isms are highly related.

One study, “Speech Perception and Language Acquisition in the First Year of Life”

Annual Review of Psychology (1/2010) is an example of an attempt in the field of psychology to meld these _isms together to aid in applying  our knowledge of learning effectively. The purpose of this article was to weld differing theories of infant language acquisition as complimentary pieces of the whole. Their conclusion: “We have reviewed evidence suggesting that nativist and empiricist proposals are incomplete if they fail to include innate dispositions and learning in a broader, integrative, biologically anchored language acquisition theory. In addition, we have shown that a third type of mechanism, perceptual and memory constraints, needs to be evoked to provide a full account of early acquisition.”

In conclusion, it seems wise to theories but not to pontificate, to use accumulated wisdom to create multiple learning pathways and environments to meet each  learners unique abilities and providing creative challenges that motivate learners.

Usefulness of Gaming in Education Response

I agree with you that gaming has such potential in education particularly for teaching problem solving skills.  In the text, Learning Theory and Instruction (pp 125-129), the discussion on "Activation of Knowledge and its "Instructional Applications" provide support for this opinion.  The main topic, transfer, is described as occurring "when knowledge and productions are linked in LTM with different content."  We can encourage this by having students practice new knowledge put to use in a variety of settings and modes.  In the gaming environment these factors are easily manipulated.  Skill levels can more easily by provided than by static text by requiring transfer via the high road, the low road, forward reaching or backward reaching. For example, our text states, " students who have difficulty learning new material employ backward-reaching  transfer when they think back to other times when they experienced difficulty and ask themselves what they did in those situations (p. 127). 

The additional plus a gaming environment offers is immediate feedback, which keeps the behaviorists happy. Page 128 provides this support, in a study of adults working on verbal analogy problems some were given corrective feedback while others were given strategic advice, it was concluded, “corrective feedback was superior to advice in promoting transfer of problem solving skills.’

The last point I would like to address is that of motivation covered by this quote from p.129, “Students do not transfer strategies automatically…. Practice addresses some of the concerns but not others…. More complex skills, such as comprehension and problem solving skills will probably benefit from this situational cognition approach( Griffin, 1994). Teachers may need to provide students with explicit motivational feedback that links strategy use with improved performance and provides information about how strategies will prove useful in that settings.” Your example of military training exemplifies this concept.

Miracle of Language

The information on propostitional networks from out text, Learning Theory and Instruction page 74, set me thinking.

This material covered Anderson’s ACT Theory ( Anderson, 1990,1993,1996; Anderson, Reder, & Lebier,1996).  Quoting from the text: ACT-R is a model of cognitive architecture that attempts to explain how all components of the mind work together to produce coherent cognition, (Anderson et all., 2004). A proposition is formed by combining two nodes with a subject-predicate link, or associations; one node constitutes the subject and another node the predicate.  Examples are (implied information in parenthesis): “Fred (is) rich” and ”Shopping (takes) time.”  A second type of association is the relation-argument link, where the relation is verb (in meaning) and the argument is the recipient of the relation or what is affected by the relationship.  Examples are “eat cake” and “solve puzzles”.  Relation arguments can serve as subjects or predicates to form complex propositions.  Examples are” Fred eat(s) cake, and “solv(ing) puzzles takes time.

This passage made me return to page 42 in the text where it posited the question, “To what extent is the brain “prewired to know or learn things?”  The discussion began by looking at language acquisition. It states that ”speaking and understanding language is a miraculous accomplishment indeed; children must master not only the subtle motor movements involved in producing various consonants and vowels, but also tens of thousands of word meanings plus syntactical structures so numerous and multifaceted that even linguist have been hard-pressed to catalog them all.“  The passage continues and is quite marvelous.  The conclusion of many researchers is that children are born with a predisposition to acquire language. (e.g., Cairns, 1996; Gopnik, 1997; Hirsh-Pasek & Golnikoff, 1996; Lennenberg, 1967; Lightfoot, 1999)

You may consider my next observation right out of the chapter of pretheory (p. 3), a myth maybe, but I next recalled that John 1:14 reads ,”And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we have seen His glory, glory as of the only Son from the Father, full of grace and truth (ESV).  If you are a creationist, like I am, it makes beautiful sense that language be prewired in a child, because the Bible tells us that we are made in the image of God who is the Word who became flesh.

Journal Review - British Journal of Educational Technology

This journal would be wonderful support for Instructional Design students.  This is accessible through the Walden University Library. I did not write this review.

The British Journal of Educational Technology provides readers with the widest possible coverage of developments in educational technology world-wide. BJET is a primary source for academics and professionals in the expanding fields of education, training and information technology.

Articles cover the whole range of education and training, concentrating on the theory, applications and development of educational technology and communications. The Colloquium section publishes shorter contributions, summarising work in progress, raising queries, and questioning received wisdom.

PsycINFO

Sample: The relationship between motivation, learning strategies and choice of environment whether traditional or including an online component.

Detail Only Available

 Clayton, Karen; Blumberg, Fran; Auld, Daniel P.; British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol 41(3), May, 2010. pp. 349-364. [Journal Article]

Subjects: Academic Achievement Motivation; Learning Environment; Learning Strategies; Adulthood (18 yrs & older); Young Adulthood (18-29 yrs); Thirties (30-39 yrs); Middle Age (40-64 yrs); Female

Database: PsycINFO

Journal Review - Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

Here is an appropriate journal for Instructional Design students ccessible through the Walden University Library.  I did not write this review.

The Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition publishes original experimental studies on basic processes of cognition, learning, memory, imagery, concept formation, problem solving, decision making, thinking, reading, and language processing.

The journal emphasizes empirical reports, which may be either multi-experiment, integrative articles, or research reports. Research reports are limited to 3,000 to 5,000 words in length (including references, but excluding abstract and footnotes).

The journal also publishes specialized reviews and other non-empirical reports, called observations, which are theoretical notes, commentary, or criticism on topics appropriate to the journal's content area. The journal will only consider commentaries on articles that were published in the journal. Observations are limited to a maximum of twenty pages of text all-inclusive. Commentaries on articles should be at maximum half the length of the target article.

For further information on content, authors should refer to the editorial in the January 2007 issue of the Journal (PDF format: 21 KB).

Subscribe to the RSS feed for Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

Sample Article : How does processing affect storage in working memory tasks? Evidence for both domain-general and domain-specific effects.

Full Text Available

Jarrold, Christopher; Tam, Helen; Baddeley, Alan D.; Harvey, Caroline E.; Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Vol 37(3), May, 2011. pp. 688-705. [Journal Article]

Subjects: Cognitive Processes; Human Information Storage; Short Term Memory; Adolescence (13-17 yrs); Adulthood (18 yrs & older); Young Adulthood (18-29 yrs); Thirties (30-39 yrs); Male; Female

Database: PsycINFO

Another Look at Language Acquisition

I reviewed this article:

Speech Perception and Language Acquisition in the First Year of Life

Annual Review of Psychology

Vol. 61: 191-218 (Volume publication date January 2010)

First published online as a Review in Advance on September 28, 2009

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100408

Judit Gervain1 and Jacques Mehler2

1Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada

2Neuroscience Sector, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, Trieste 31014, Italy; email: mehler@sissa.it

The purpose of this article was to weld differing theories of infant language acquisition as complimentary pieces of the whole.  

First they stated the following, “One of the most fundamental and at the same time most surprising perceptual abilities of newborns is that they are able to discriminate most sound contrasts used in the world's languages. In other words, they are born as “citizens of the world,” ready to learn any natural language.”

Next cited, were works with song birds where it was determined that “song culture” is the result of an extended developmental process, a ‘multigenerational’ phenotype partly genetically encoded in a founding population and partly in environmental variables.”

In addition studies on infants exposed to statistical information, phonotactics, allophonic clues and prosody were cited. From these they concluded, “Taken together, these studies indicate that statistical segmentation alone is not sufficient to solve the task of extracting word forms from continuous speech. Other clues, taking into account the morphophonological properties of individual languages, are needed to complement statistical computations.”

Also stated in this paper, “One of the most important findings of this increasing body of research is that the newborn and infant brain shows a functional organization for language processing that is similar to that of the adult brain. ”This organization appears to be at least partly under genetic control and develops even without experience with language (e.g., in congenitally deaf individuals).

Their conclusion: “We have reviewed evidence suggesting that nativist and empiricist proposals are incomplete if they fail to include innate dispositions and learning in a broader, integrative, biologically anchored language acquisition theory. In addition, we have shown that a third type of mechanism, perceptual and memory constraints, needs to be evoked to provide a full account of early acquisition.”

My response: The design for human language acquisition is remarkable.  The organization for the categorization and relationship of information is laid within the foundation of the mind.  Building blocks of language are perceived by the learner and repeated in the environment for memorization, patterns are identifiable within language allowing for sequencing of words to relay information, plasticity within the brain is encountered as means of adaptation to the environment and needs of the learner, and multiple and complex relationships are easily formed for Increased complexity of expression, self sufficiency and enjoyment.  These remind me of  the components of good instructional design as described within Learning Theories and Instruction (2009).  Language is a marvelous gift to man allowing him to appreciate, expand his knowledge, share and join into relationships.

Education Theory

http://edtheory.blogspot.com/

This blog contains well cited information on teaching methods and learning from a professor of pharmacology. He also has lovely photographs.  I will enjoy checking in with his posts.

Instructional Design Blog Review 3

My learning path this time took me to http://ben1976.wordpress.com/2011/03/08/popular-instructional-design-models/.


I chose wordpress.com, did a search, Instructional Design.  Many reading options were presented.  I chose this one about instructional design models.  In this case this was a single entry on Instructional Design and then moved to a fishing post.  There were RSS feeds on elearning on this blog, but the author had not persisted in this field.  Many blogs seem to be a mix of personal fun and some technical information.  These would not be efficient sources of information for someone searching for ideas or help in the middle of a project.

Instructional Design Blog Review 2

http://ideas.blogs.com/lo/


This second instructional design blog I reviewed is scholarly, carefully citing works and addressing knowledgable designers.  I am not familiar with blogs, but the question arose, why such a difference between blog sites? There must be quite a lot of maintenance to keeping a consistent and focused blog that meets the ideals of the participants.

Instructional Design Blog Review

 http://en.wordpress.com/tag/instructional-design/ 


I streamed this blog to my RSS reader. The postings discussed employing social media assets to further the learning of their clients.  The posts varied from queries for ideas, to informal posts, which I had difficulty following, to scholarly information that really will be helpful when developing a project.  There were also job postings, which is always hopeful. Instructional designers would find this blog site helpful.